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Designing
Transit
Maps
Designing
Transit
Maps
Introducing a new book released by Bureau Gorbunov Publishing—a practigal guide to transit map design. The book speaks of transit map history, important principles of their design, and how they evolve together with their networks. The author talks about techniques: plotting the lines, denoting the stops, choosing the fonts, and composing the final poster.
Table of contents
The challenge
The principle
The layout
The details
The system
Introducing a new book released by Bureau Gorbunov Publishing—a practigal guide to transit map design. The book speaks of transit map history, important principles of their design, and how they evolve together with their networks. The author talks about techniques: plotting the lines, denoting the stops, choosing the fonts, and composing the final poster.
Table of contents
The challenge
The principle
The layout
The details
The system
1
The challenge
1
The challenge
This is a fragment of a clay tablet from the −13th century with a plan of Nippur, a sacred ancient Sumerian city. It is now a city in Iraq.
The mankind used to display reality on maps much earlier: there are known land maps from as long ago as −70th century, and one of the discovered star maps of the sky is dated as far back as −145th century.
Map and reality
This is a fragment of a clay tablet from the −13th century with a plan of Nippur, a sacred ancient Sumerian city. It is now a city in Iraq.
The mankind used to display reality on maps much earlier: there are known land maps from as long ago as −70th century, and one of the discovered star maps of the sky is dated as far back as −145th century.
Earth from Electro‑L satellite
After a man has been in space, no doubt remained as to the true shape of the continents, mountains, and seas. But no matter how beautiful this picture is, it is of little use for most practical applications.
Earth from Electro‑L satellite
After a man has been in space, no doubt remained as to the true shape of the continents, mountains, and seas. But no matter how beautiful this picture is, it is of little use for most practical applications.
Let’s look at this school plan. It is quite detailed: you can see the peculiarities of the building shape, the wall structure, the windows sections. In the toilets, there is each stall and each urinal. In the library, there is the layout of the bookshelves.
A wayfinding map, however, is not a construction drawing. It doesn't require such details. If the goal is to help the reader find the right room, the shape of the building can be simplified, the main corridor can be enlarged, the toilets can be marked more clearly.
It’s easier to navigate with the redesigned map. But if you need to pick the right dimensions for your office furniture, it will be misleading.
Let’s look at this school plan. It is quite detailed: you can see the peculiarities of the building shape, the wall structure, the windows sections. In the toilets, there is each stall and each urinal. In the library, there is the layout of the bookshelves.
A wayfinding map, however, is not a construction drawing. It doesn't require such details. If the goal is to help the reader find the right room, the shape of the building can be simplified, the main corridor can be enlarged, the toilets can be marked more clearly.
It’s easier to navigate with the redesigned map. But if you need to pick the right dimensions for your office furniture, it will be misleading.
The first transit maps
As commercial transport emerged, the task of showing routes clearly to help customers get from point A to point B became particularly important. Maps of transportation networks became a way to advertise them.
The fragment shown here is from Paris horse‑drawn coaches map, circa 1830. There are eleven lines, each designated with its own color. Streets and city buildings are visible in the background.
State Library Victoria, Australia
The first transit maps
As commercial transport emerged, the task of showing routes clearly to help customers get from point A to point B became particularly important. Maps of transportation networks became a way to advertise them.
The fragment shown here is from Paris horse‑drawn coaches map, circa 1830. There are eleven lines, each designated with its own color. Streets and city buildings are visible in the background.
State Library Victoria, Australia
Stingemore, 1932
Henry Beck, 1965. Photo by Ken Garland
Beck’s sketch, 1931
Victoria and Albert Museum
In the early 1930s, Henry Beck (for friends, Harry), a engineering draftsman at the London Underground signals office, began working on a full diagram of all the services then in operation.
He drew all the lines to angles divisible by 45°, and even the Thames had to obey this rule. This seems to be the first time anyone has given up geography on a city‑wide map.
Beck’s sketch, 1931
Victoria and Albert Museum
In the early 1930s, Henry Beck (for friends, Harry), a engineering draftsman at the London Underground signals office, began working on a full diagram of all the services then in operation.
He drew all the lines to angles divisible by 45°, and even the Thames had to obey this rule. This seems to be the first time anyone has given up geography on a city‑wide map.
Stingemore, 1932
Henry Beck, 1965. Photo by Ken Garland
Transit map diversity
Beck’s work has made a huge impact on wayfinding design. Although he was not the first to draw a non‑geographical map, he was the one who went down in history as the inventor of such maps. Perhaps the reason is that he was the first to successfully depict the underground railways of a big city in this way.
Edward Tufte admires Beck’s map and writes that its design can hardly be replicated. I wouldn’t say so: dozens of complex transportation systems in the world are successfully using Beck’s principles. And when we hear “subway map”, we imagine a Beck‑like design.
“For apparently quite a number of people, the map organized London (rather than London organizing the map). Despite 70 years of revision due to extensions of the Underground and bureaucratic tinkering (the marketing department wrecked the map for several years), the map nicely survives to this day.
Later European and American knock‑offs did not succeed at all. The Underground Map and Minard’s famous Carte Figurative of the French Army’s disaster in Russia in the war of 1812 are alike in important respects: both are brilliant, and neither travels well. The Underground Map and Napoleon’s March are perfectly attuned to their particular data, so focused on their data sets.”
London Underground maps on Tufte forums
Transit map diversity
Beck’s work has made a huge impact on wayfinding design. Although he was not the first to draw a non‑geographical map, he was the one who went down in history as the inventor of such maps. Perhaps the reason is that he was the first to successfully depict the underground railways of a big city in this way.
Edward Tufte admires Beck’s map and writes that its design can hardly be replicated. I wouldn’t say so: dozens of complex transportation systems in the world are successfully using Beck’s principles. And when we hear “subway map”, we imagine a Beck‑like design.
“For apparently quite a number of people, the map organized London (rather than London organizing the map). Despite 70 years of revision due to extensions of the Underground and bureaucratic tinkering (the marketing department wrecked the map for several years), the map nicely survives to this day.
Later European and American knock‑offs did not succeed at all. The Underground Map and Minard’s famous Carte Figurative of the French Army’s disaster in Russia in the war of 1812 are alike in important respects: both are brilliant, and neither travels well. The Underground Map and Napoleon’s March are perfectly attuned to their particular data, so focused on their data sets.”
London Underground maps on Tufte forums
The Moscow Metro has its own peculiarity. For historical reasons, the platforms of different lines at an interchange are considered different stations and often carry different names. In London, it is enough to mark a complex interchange with one symbol and one label, while in Moscow, the display of a complex interchange becomes a problem.
In addition, unlike in London or Paris, in Moscow it is necessary to dub the names in Roman script.
As a result, the number of labels to be placed increases manifold. On the vast London map, labels never cross lines. To follow such a rule in Moscow, it would be necessary to reduce the font size to tiny and significantly complicate the line geometry. Therefore Moscow has to use transparent plates under some labels.
Overlapping and plaques:
Labels
Moscow. 4 lines intersect, 8 labels used
London. 6 lines intersect, 1 label used
The Moscow Metro has its own peculiarity. For historical reasons, the platforms of different lines at an interchange are considered different stations and often carry different names. In London, it is enough to mark a complex interchange with one symbol and one label, while in Moscow, the display of a complex interchange becomes a problem.
In addition, unlike in London or Paris, in Moscow it is necessary to dub the names in Roman script.
As a result, the number of labels to be placed increases manifold. On the vast London map, labels never cross lines. To follow such a rule in Moscow, it would be necessary to reduce the font size to tiny and significantly complicate the line geometry. Therefore Moscow has to use transparent plates under some labels.
Moscow. 4 lines intersect, 8 labels used
London. 6 lines intersect, 1 label used
Overlapping and plaques:
Labels
Greater Tokyo Railways
Meik
Greater Tokyo Railways
Meik
Station lifts diagram
At modern stations, passengers on wheelchairs and with strollers get to enjoy step‑free access to all lines. This is the lift diagram of London’s King’s Cross St. Pancras station, where six lines intersect.
Using the diagram, you can understand that if you need to go from Victoria Line to Metropolitan Line, you need to take lift K, then H, then go far down the lobby to lift F and go down to the platform on it.
Station lifts diagram
At modern stations, passengers on wheelchairs and with strollers get to enjoy step‑free access to all lines. This is the lift diagram of London’s King’s Cross St. Pancras station, where six lines intersect.
Using the diagram, you can understand that if you need to go from Victoria Line to Metropolitan Line, you need to take lift K, then H, then go far down the lobby to lift F and go down to the platform on it.
Map as a symbol
In discussing the map’s function so far, we have only touched on logic, but not aesthetics.
This is the official public transit map of Chelyabinsk, Russia. It looks repulsive. Imagine the pain of having to use it when there is no one to help you.
‘South Ural State University’ bus stop, 2018
Map as a symbol
In discussing the map’s function so far, we have only touched on logic, but not aesthetics.
This is the official public transit map of Chelyabinsk, Russia. It looks repulsive. Imagine the pain of having to use it when there is no one to help you.
‘South Ural State University’ bus stop, 2018
The Moscow’s circular Circle Line has inspired the designers to make the new wayfinding products of a circular shape. In 2016 or so, the circular pedestrian wayfinding totems started to appear in Moscow.
Circular stela on Kuznetsky Most station. Design by Billings Jackson and City ID
Circular stela on Kuznetsky Most station. Design by Billings Jackson and City ID
The Moscow’s circular Circle Line has inspired the designers to make the new wayfinding products of a circular shape. In 2016 or so, the circular pedestrian wayfinding totems started to appear in Moscow.
Even the temporary signage for bus drivers during road works are set in Transport for London’s brand font. The shape of the arrow is also standard.
Even the temporary signage for bus drivers during road works are set in Transport for London’s brand font. The shape of the arrow is also standard.
Finding a solution
Transit map design is hardly a typical exercise in information display.
All transit systems have their own quirks: obscure interchanges, unusual timetables for certain routes, one‑way stops, tricky fares. We need to show it all in a way that no one is intimidated or confused by.
The aesthetics, as we discussed above, are also demanding: the design must be recognisable and distinctive so that it works for the brand image of the transit agency and the city itself.
Those who never dealt with transit maps might think: there is a limited number of elements, clear relationships between them, a set of requirements for angles and colors. Aesthetics aside, shouldn’t it be possible for an algorithm to find the optimal arrangement?
So far, the answer is no. The actual design process usually involves a lengthy trial and error. Sometimes an unexpected solution succeeds—look at New York City. And whatever the solution, there will necessarily be small exceptions that the computer will never think of.
New York City Subway map:
Transit map diversity
Finding a solution
Transit map design is hardly a typical exercise in information display.
All transit systems have their own quirks: obscure interchanges, unusual timetables for certain routes, one‑way stops, tricky fares. We need to show it all in a way that no one is intimidated or confused by.
The aesthetics, as we discussed above, are also demanding: the design must be recognisable and distinctive so that it works for the brand image of the transit agency and the city itself.
Those who never dealt with transit maps might think: there is a limited number of elements, clear relationships between them, a set of requirements for angles and colors. Aesthetics aside, shouldn’t it be possible for an algorithm to find the optimal arrangement?
So far, the answer is no. The actual design process usually involves a lengthy trial and error. Sometimes an unexpected solution succeeds—look at New York City. And whatever the solution, there will necessarily be small exceptions that the computer will never think of.
New York City Subway map:
Transit map diversity
When I started working on my first Moscow Metro map in 2006, it seemed to me that I had to find a way to connect the stations with lines making as few bends as possible, and then put labels next to them.
At the time, I used the interchanges as convenient pivots for line bends.
How it should be:
Turns must be clearly visible
When I started working on my first Moscow Metro map in 2006, it seemed to me that I had to find a way to connect the stations with lines making as few bends as possible, and then put labels next to them.
At the time, I used the interchanges as convenient pivots for line bends.
How it should be:
Turns must be clearly visible
Moscow’s official map, 2005
In Moscow, official maps would always depict each platform as a separate circle with a label next to it.
To simplify the map’s geometry, I decided to depict entire interchanges with singular circles.
The problem is, stations of the same interchange hub can have different names, so I had to put boxes with lists of those names at such hubs.
On the difficulties of labeling Moscow stations:
Transit map diversity
Moscow’s official map, 2005
In Moscow, official maps would always depict each platform as a separate circle with a label next to it.
To simplify the map’s geometry, I decided to depict entire interchanges with singular circles.
The problem is, stations of the same interchange hub can have different names, so I had to put boxes with lists of those names at such hubs.
On the difficulties of labeling Moscow stations:
Transit map diversity
Version 3.508
Version 3.510
Version 3.516
Version 3.517
Version 3.530
Version 3.577
Version 3.691
When the shape of the Lenin Library interchange was found, I moved on to finding the placement for the other interchanges and their labels.
In the first version of the Lubyanka interchange, the label Кузнецкий Мост overlaps the purple line.
I break the label into two lines, but it becomes cramped between the red and purple lines.
So I flip the platforms to make the interchange breathe more freely.
Now I try to put Кузнецкий Мост closer to the station and move the romanized label farther away. This clearly looks better. I will rearrange all the labels this way later.
Changing the angle of the interchange allows for making the label left‑aligned, which is easier to read.
Next, I make the interchange passage shorter. When there are only two platforms to connect, it looks neater than a long one. However, the visual connection between the left‑aligned label and the station gets rather loose.
At some point later, I put all the Russian labels next to the stations pushing the romanized ones away. Кузнецкий Мост got centered, and now works well.
Version 3.508
Version 3.510
Version 3.516
Version 3.517
Version 3.530
Version 3.577
Version 3.691
When the shape of the Lenin Library interchange was found, I moved on to finding the placement for the other interchanges and their labels.
In the first version of the Lubyanka interchange, the label Кузнецкий Мост overlaps the purple line.
I break the label into two lines, but it becomes cramped between the red and purple lines.
So I flip the platforms to make the interchange breathe more freely.
Now I try to put Кузнецкий Мост closer to the station and move the romanized label farther away. This clearly looks better. I will rearrange all the labels this way later.
Changing the angle of the interchange allows for making the label left‑aligned, which is easier to read.
Next, I make the interchange passage shorter. When there are only two platforms to connect, it looks neater than a long one. However, the visual connection between the left‑aligned label and the station gets rather loose.
At some point later, I put all the Russian labels next to the stations pushing the romanized ones away. Кузнецкий Мост got centered, and now works well.
In the next part, let’s talk about principles a map can be made by: what kind of transport is shown, what geometry the lines have, how colors are used. These are usually the first things to consider, because they will be difficult to change in the later stages of design. Details like a font used for labels or specific shades of colors could be decided later.
Yet the example the Lenin Library interchange shows that sometimes this is not the case: difficulties with details lead to a revision of the principles. Everything affects everything.
In the next part, let’s talk about principles a map can be made by: what kind of transport is shown, what geometry the lines have, how colors are used. These are usually the first things to consider, because they will be difficult to change in the later stages of design. Details like a font used for labels or specific shades of colors could be decided later.
Yet the example the Lenin Library interchange shows that sometimes this is not the case: difficulties with details lead to a revision of the principles. Everything affects everything.
2
The principle
Correspondence between lines and routes
Color coding
Geometry
Orientation
Scope
Granularity
Freedom
2
The principle
Correspondence between lines and routes
Color coding
Geometry
Orientation
Scope
Granularity
Freedom
Correspondence between lines and routes
This is how they used to design transit maps in Russian tram depots and bus parks: they took the city map, then traced all the roads with transit services, then put the route numbers along the lines or at the stops.
It’s easy to make a map like this, but it’s inconvenient to use. For example, try to follow the route of tram 15.
When there are many routes in a single line, every intersection is disorienting.
This tram map was used in Chelyabinsk until 2018
Correspondence between lines and routes
This is how they used to design transit maps in Russian tram depots and bus parks: they took the city map, then traced all the roads with transit services, then put the route numbers along the lines or at the stops.
It’s easy to make a map like this, but it’s inconvenient to use. For example, try to follow the route of tram 15.
When there are many routes in a single line, every intersection is disorienting.
This tram map was used in Chelyabinsk until 2018
The decision about what to count and depict as a separate line is not an engineering decision, but a purely design one. The design of a map has great power and affects passengers’ perception of reality.
In Copenhagen, the situation is similar to that in Stockholm: many commuter trains pass through the same set of stations in the city center, but branch off differently in the suburbs. But in this case, each route is drawn separately, so passengers probably won’t consider it “branching off”.
The advantage of this design is that you don’t have to think about routes: there are only lines. The disadvantage is the absurdly thick line bundles.
Copenhagen commuter trains, 2006
Copenhagen commuter trains, 2006
The decision about what to count and depict as a separate line is not an engineering decision, but a purely design one. The design of a map has great power and affects passengers’ perception of reality.
In Copenhagen, the situation is similar to that in Stockholm: many commuter trains pass through the same set of stations in the city center, but branch off differently in the suburbs. But in this case, each route is drawn separately, so passengers probably won’t consider it “branching off”.
The advantage of this design is that you don’t have to think about routes: there are only lines. The disadvantage is the absurdly thick line bundles.
If every possible District line route was depicted as a separate line, the map would get too complicated.
If every possible District line route was depicted as a separate line, the map would get too complicated.
Color coding
In traditional cartography, the meaning of a line is indicated by its style. Depending on the thickness, pattern, and crookedness of the line, we know whether we are looking at a road, river, border, or meridian.
Siberia
John Bartholomew, 1922
Rumsey
Color coding
In traditional cartography, the meaning of a line is indicated by its style. Depending on the thickness, pattern, and crookedness of the line, we know whether we are looking at a road, river, border, or meridian.
Siberia
John Bartholomew, 1922
Rumsey
The most annoying single‑word color is yellow. It is lighter than any other color, so you almost can’t read white text on it. To fix this, we can make an exception and always use black on yellow.
Worse yet, yellow itself is poorly visible on a light background. Putting the whole map on a dark background just for the legibility of yellow is an unreasonable measure.
When a yellow line appeared on the London Underground map, it was drawn with a thin black outline. The old New York City Subway maps did without one.
In today’s maps, it’s the other way around: no outline in London, but there is one in New York City.
Outlining is a valid cartographic technique, but it usually looks inelegant on diagrammatic transit maps. It is odd when among the same type of objects, one suddenly gets a special designation.
To make a yellow line more clear without an outline, it’s better to make the yellow darker. However, when you darken a yellow, you get an unpleasant muddy swamp color. Fix this by shifting the hue towards orange:
Too light yellow
Darker: muddy swamp
Darker and more orange: good yellow
Yellow line with a black outline. London, 1950
Yellow line without an outline. New York City, 1979
Yellow line without an outline. London, 2018
Yellow line with a black outline. New York City, 2018
Yellow line with a black outline. London, 1950
Yellow line without an outline. New York City, 1979
Yellow line without an outline. London, 2018
Yellow line with a black outline. New York City, 2018
The most annoying single‑word color is yellow. It is lighter than any other color, so you almost can’t read white text on it. To fix this, we can make an exception and always use black on yellow.
Worse yet, yellow itself is poorly visible on a light background. Putting the whole map on a dark background just for the legibility of yellow is an unreasonable measure.
When a yellow line appeared on the London Underground map, it was drawn with a thin black outline. The old New York City Subway maps did without one.
In today’s maps, it’s the other way around: no outline in London, but there is one in New York City.
Outlining is a valid cartographic technique, but it usually looks inelegant on diagrammatic transit maps. It is odd when among the same type of objects, one suddenly gets a special designation.
To make a yellow line more clear without an outline, it’s better to make the yellow darker. However, when you darken a yellow, you get an unpleasant muddy swamp color. Fix this by shifting the hue towards orange:
Too light yellow
Darker: muddy swamp
Darker and more orange: good yellow
Geometry
This anxious map shows Budapest's metro lines, as well as bus, trolleybus, and tram routes. The lines are realistically shaped as they run through streets and past parks.
This is a geographical map.
Geometry
This anxious map shows Budapest's metro lines, as well as bus, trolleybus, and tram routes. The lines are realistically shaped as they run through streets and past parks.
This is a geographical map.
London Underground, designed by Henry Beck
The first transit maps
45°
Helsinki trams
30°
Schukino surface transport, my design, abandoned
22,5°
Luxembourg buses, designed by Jug Cerović, VDL
18°
Moscow’s ‘Magistral’ bus network, designed by Constantine Konovalov, 2018
15°
The future metro of Turin, designed by Chris Smere
60°
Train network of Melbourne, designed by Philip Mallis
90°
The main way to make a map geometrical is to employ an angle grid, i. e. allow the line segments to run only at a particular set of angles.
The most common is the 45‑degree grid used by Beck in the London map: lines run at angles that are multiple of 45°.
The Helsinki map from the previous page has a 30‑degree grid.
I tried 22,5° on the Schukino map. I needed extra flexibility, because I was drawing streets and wanted to depict them close to reality for recognizability.
On the Luxembourg map, the grid step is 18°. Even this fine grid doesn’t give the impression of disorder. First, there are many line segments at each of the allowed angles. Second, from the very center run the bold lines at most of the allowed angles. We notice this straight away, understand the structure, and see the beauty in it.
The ‘Magistral’ map is also beautiful, but its 15‑degree grid is not working that well: there are too few lines and too many bends on them to notice that some segments are parallel to each other. It seems that the lines just bend wherever and however they please.
Usually the angles that are dividers of 90° are used. This way you can be sure to have the horizontals and verticals allowed. If you pick a 60‑degree angle grid, you can’t do that.
Finally, you can leave only horizontals and verticals.
London Underground, designed by Henry Beck
The first transit maps
45°
Helsinki trams
30°
Schukino surface transport, my design, abandoned
22,5°
Luxembourg buses, designed by Jug Cerović, VDL
18°
Moscow’s ‘Magistral’ bus network, designed by Constantine Konovalov, 2018
15°
The future metro of Turin, designed by Chris Smere
60°
Train network of Melbourne, designed by Philip Mallis
90°
The main way to make a map geometrical is to employ an angle grid, i. e. allow the line segments to run only at a particular set of angles.
The most common is the 45‑degree grid used by Beck in the London map: lines run at angles that are multiple of 45°.
The Helsinki map from the previous page has a 30‑degree grid.
I tried 22,5° on the Schukino map. I needed extra flexibility, because I was drawing streets and wanted to depict them close to reality for recognizability.
On the Luxembourg map, the grid step is 18°. Even this fine grid doesn’t give the impression of disorder. First, there are many line segments at each of the allowed angles. Second, from the very center run the bold lines at most of the allowed angles. We notice this straight away, understand the structure, and see the beauty in it.
The ‘Magistral’ map is also beautiful, but its 15‑degree grid is not working that well: there are too few lines and too many bends on them to notice that some segments are parallel to each other. It seems that the lines just bend wherever and however they please.
Usually the angles that are dividers of 90° are used. This way you can be sure to have the horizontals and verticals allowed. If you pick a 60‑degree angle grid, you can’t do that.
Finally, you can leave only horizontals and verticals.
Orientation
Orientation
Traditionally, maps are drawn with north facing upward. If you change the usual map orientation, well‑known places will look unfamiliar.
In the case of transit maps, especially geometrical ones, the notion of orientation is somewhat fuzzy. The lines run at the angles the map design requires, and those angles can be quite different from the actual ones. It makes sense to rotate the map so that it is easier to read, remember, or even so that it better fits the format.
Orientation
Traditionally, maps are drawn with north facing upward. If you change the usual map orientation, well‑known places will look unfamiliar.
In the case of transit maps, especially geometrical ones, the notion of orientation is somewhat fuzzy. The lines run at the angles the map design requires, and those angles can be quite different from the actual ones. It makes sense to rotate the map so that it is easier to read, remember, or even so that it better fits the format.
Scope
Some transit systems are too complex to be shown on a single map. A good way to keep things simple is to limit the scope of the map, that is, show less stuff.
For example, you can show just the night routes. At night, passengers don’t care what runs during the day: they need to get somewhere right now. Separate daytime and nighttime maps are simpler because you don’t have to specify which route runs when. This works when there is a clear division between day and night routes.
Japan’s night ferries map
Tripadvisor
Scope
Some transit systems are too complex to be shown on a single map. A good way to keep things simple is to limit the scope of the map, that is, show less stuff.
For example, you can show just the night routes. At night, passengers don’t care what runs during the day: they need to get somewhere right now. Separate daytime and nighttime maps are simpler because you don’t have to specify which route runs when. This works when there is a clear division between day and night routes.
Japan’s night ferries map
Tripadvisor
Granularity
The principles of Henry Beck’s London map, such as discarding geography and conforming lines to 45° angles, were a response to the growing complexity and size of the underground. But thoughtless copying of these principles makes no sense. The map shown here adds little to a mere comma‑separated list of stations: Alabinskaya, Rossiyskaya, Moskovskaya...
Samara, Russia
Granularity
The principles of Henry Beck’s London map, such as discarding geography and conforming lines to 45° angles, were a response to the growing complexity and size of the underground. But thoughtless copying of these principles makes no sense. The map shown here adds little to a mere comma‑separated list of stations: Alabinskaya, Rossiyskaya, Moskovskaya...
Samara, Russia
With platform precision. Map 3.0
In Moscow’s official map, the granularity is even higher: a separate circle represents each platform, even with a common name.
This solution removes the unambiguous one‑to‑one correspondence between the platform circle and the label. The reader has to guess. In general the map becomes more complicated: even the simplest interchange is a “peanut”, not a circle.
With track precision. In 100 years
The poster “Moscow metro in 100 years” is even more granular: not just platforms, but individual tracks are depicted. On cross‑platform stations, such as Третьяковская, one platform serves different lines. In such cases, the lines are cut in half to pass through the correct platforms.
Art. Lebedev Studio
With platform precision. Map 3.0
In Moscow’s official map, the granularity is even higher: a separate circle represents each platform, even with a common name.
This solution removes the unambiguous one‑to‑one correspondence between the platform circle and the label. The reader has to guess. In general the map becomes more complicated: even the simplest interchange is a “peanut”, not a circle.
With track precision. In 100 years
The poster “Moscow metro in 100 years” is even more granular: not just platforms, but individual tracks are depicted. On cross‑platform stations, such as Третьяковская, one platform serves different lines. In such cases, the lines are cut in half to pass through the correct platforms.
Art. Lebedev Studio
Freedom
Having a principle is important for good design. Without it, the design looks random. But a principle is not an end in itself, it is just a tool for making decisions. A principle can tie designers’ hands.
We should not fear freedom. It’s normal to make an exception to any principle or to combine different principles on the same map if the map would benefit from it.
Freedom
Having a principle is important for good design. Without it, the design looks random. But a principle is not an end in itself, it is just a tool for making decisions. A principle can tie designers’ hands.
We should not fear freedom. It’s normal to make an exception to any principle or to combine different principles on the same map if the map would benefit from it.
When the principle is obvious to the reader, the map is easier to read unambiguously. But sometimes if you follow the principle blindly, the result could turn out confusing.
Consider the modern London Tube map. On principle, non‑transfer stations here are denoted by ticks, and transfer stations are denoted by black circles.
For example,
It would be logical to show all shared stations as interchanges, but it would overcomplicate the map.
Only stations where you can also transfer somewhere else are marked with circles. In other cases, it is just assumed because the two lines are stitched in a bundle. If a passenger doesn’t get this and decides that it is possible to transfer only at stations with circles, no big deal: they will be able to transfer anyway.
Transport for London, 2018
Transport for London, 2018
When the principle is obvious to the reader, the map is easier to read unambiguously. But sometimes if you follow the principle blindly, the result could turn out confusing.
Consider the modern London Tube map. On principle, non‑transfer stations here are denoted by ticks, and transfer stations are denoted by black circles.
For example,
It would be logical to show all shared stations as interchanges, but it would overcomplicate the map.
Only stations where you can also transfer somewhere else are marked with circles. In other cases, it is just assumed because the two lines are stitched in a bundle. If a passenger doesn’t get this and decides that it is possible to transfer only at stations with circles, no big deal: they will be able to transfer anyway.
On my main Moscow metro map, the tick of Смоленская (Smolenskaya) station
If I had made this tick as big as the others, it would have tapped
If I made all the ticks on the map as short as this one, the whole map would be less legible.
If I had increased the distance between the two lines, I would have had to enlarge the capsule that designates the following Киевская (Kievskaya) station, which both lines pass. But I didn’t want to make the designation heavier.
In good graphic design, the general affects the particular, not the other way around. Therefore, it is better to make an unnoticeable local exception, but keep the desired look of the map as a whole.
On my main Moscow metro map, the tick of Смоленская (Smolenskaya) station
If I had made this tick as big as the others, it would have tapped
If I made all the ticks on the map as short as this one, the whole map would be less legible.
If I had increased the distance between the two lines, I would have had to enlarge the capsule that designates the following Киевская (Kievskaya) station, which both lines pass. But I didn’t want to make the designation heavier.
In good graphic design, the general affects the particular, not the other way around. Therefore, it is better to make an unnoticeable local exception, but keep the desired look of the map as a whole.
3
The layout
3
The layout
Grapheme
Passengers use the map to look for stations and plan routes. To help them, we introduce color coding, remove the unnecessary, organize distances, angles, and designations. The resulting graphics have some shape.
A good shape helps to recognize the map and gives the passenger’s eye some points of reference. Yuri Suzuki made a circuit board in the shape of the Tube map for London Design Museum. Anyone who is familiar with London will find Green Park station on the board, even though its name is blocked by a condenser.
Grapheme
Passengers use the map to look for stations and plan routes. To help them, we introduce color coding, remove the unnecessary, organize distances, angles, and designations. The resulting graphics have some shape.
A good shape helps to recognize the map and gives the passenger’s eye some points of reference. Yuri Suzuki made a circuit board in the shape of the Tube map for London Design Museum. Anyone who is familiar with London will find Green Park station on the board, even though its name is blocked by a condenser.
Graphemes of Moscow and Chicago transit maps compared to the satellite view of the cities
Of course, the grapheme of a map is initially determined by the topology of the transportation network itself, which is in turn derived from the city plan. So Moscow and Chicago just had to end up distinctive.
In the case of less “graphical” cities, it is the designer’s job to come up with an idea for the grapheme. If the city does not give any clues, it is possible to artificially design the eye‑catching contours for the map.
Of course, the grapheme of a map is initially determined by the topology of the transportation network itself, which is in turn derived from the city plan. So Moscow and Chicago just had to end up distinctive.
Graphemes of Moscow and Chicago transit maps compared to the satellite view of the cities
In the case of less “graphical” cities, it is the designer’s job to come up with an idea for the grapheme. If the city does not give any clues, it is possible to artificially design the eye‑catching contours for the map.
Теxture
Uneven texture of the Berlin map
In the previous chapter, I encouraged you to give the elements of the map a characteristic shape, rather than make the interlacing lines into a continuous uniform pattern. The features of the map should become a guide for the eye.
But on the other hand, for a map’s layout to feel solid, there needs to be order and neatness to it. This is achieved by the uniform density, or texture of the map. Lumps and holes are not suitable as features.
Uneven texture of the Berlin map
Теxture
In the previous chapter, I encouraged you to give the elements of the map a characteristic shape, rather than make the interlacing lines into a continuous uniform pattern. The features of the map should become a guide for the eye.
But on the other hand, for a map’s layout to feel solid, there needs to be order and neatness to it. This is achieved by the uniform density, or texture of the map. Lumps and holes are not suitable as features.
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Something had to be done with these holes.
The hole to the right of the green line was aided to some extent by a text block about Paveletsky rail terminal. But the one to the left was really helpless.
To fill the left hole, the designers renamed the Tulskaya station to “The second station after the circle, also known as Tulskaya”. That was a joke, of course; a way to express their frustration.
The designers could also have packed more stations above the new circle, MCC, even though in reality the stations are located to the south of it. The problem, however, is that an interchange was planned from Nagatinskaya to the station on the MCC. It would need to be indicated on the map soon, so Nagatinskaya should be placed close to MCC.
All remaining options were hacks. First, they put the Metro logo in the hole.
Then they decided to put a large Moskva River label there.
The making of the Moscow Metro map 3.0. Art. Lebedev Studio
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Something had to be done with these holes.
The hole to the right of the green line was aided to some extent by a text block about Paveletsky rail terminal. But the one to the left was really helpless.
To fill the left hole, the designers renamed the Tulskaya station to “The second station after the circle, also known as Tulskaya”. That was a joke, of course; a way to express their frustration.
The designers could also have packed more stations above the new circle, MCC, even though in reality the stations are located to the south of it. The problem, however, is that an interchange was planned from Nagatinskaya to the station on the MCC. It would need to be indicated on the map soon, so Nagatinskaya should be placed close to MCC.
All remaining options were hacks. First, they put the Metro logo in the hole.
Then they decided to put a large Moskva River label there.
The making of the Moscow Metro map 3.0. Art. Lebedev Studio
Designed by Egor Popov and Sergey Chikin, directed by myself. About the project
Without a label
If a particular object’s label can be put in different places, it is a good idea to put it in the area where density is the lowest.
With a label
On our St. Petersburg Metro map, the label of Obvodny Canal is placed in an otherwise noticeable empty space between lines.
Without a label
If a particular object’s label can be put in different places, it is a good idea to put it in the area where density is the lowest.
With a label
On our St. Petersburg Metro map, the label of Obvodny Canal is placed in an otherwise noticeable empty space between lines.
Designed by Egor Popov and Sergey Chikin, directed by myself. About the project
Rhythm
Artem Gorbunov
on coordination in design RU
Early in his career, the publisher of this book, Artem Gorbunov worked as a designer in Art. Lebedev Studio. He once told a story how with great difficulty he drew and approved four images for a client’s website with the project’s art director, Ilya Mikhailov.
Artemy Lebedev, the studio founder, commented on the result: “The pictures here are drawn at different angles. You should make it so that when the user moves between the website’s sections, the pictures rotate in the same direction and you get a linear sequence”.
One of the pictures had to be redrawn. Artem calls this story one of his most important design lessons and writes:
In a good design, all elements are coordinated. As technology advances, more and more coordinated are the movement of mechanical parts, frequencies, timing of interaction, and overall structure. In a mature business, coordinated are advertising, sales, production, and logistics. In mature graphic design, coordinated are color, modular grid, and typography.
Rhythm
Early in his career, the publisher of this book, Artem Gorbunov worked as a designer in Art. Lebedev Studio. He once told a story how with great difficulty he drew and approved four images for a client’s website with the project’s art director, Ilya Mikhailov.
Artemy Lebedev, the studio founder, commented on the result: “The pictures here are drawn at different angles. You should make it so that when the user moves between the website’s sections, the pictures rotate in the same direction and you get a linear sequence”.
One of the pictures had to be redrawn. Artem calls this story one of his most important design lessons and writes:
In a good design, all elements are coordinated. As technology advances, more and more coordinated are the movement of mechanical parts, frequencies, timing of interaction, and overall structure. In a mature business, coordinated are advertising, sales, production, and logistics. In mature graphic design, coordinated are color, modular grid, and typography.
Artem Gorbunov
on coordination in design RU
Format
The natural shape of a watermelon is spherical. But spherical watermelons have problems: they take up space inefficiently and are often damaged in transportation.
People have learned to grow cubic watermelons, which don’t have these problems.
Format
The natural shape of a watermelon is spherical. But spherical watermelons have problems: they take up space inefficiently and are often damaged in transportation.
People have learned to grow cubic watermelons, which don’t have these problems.
A reader has once sent a map of Dobryanka’s buses.
A typical mistake is made: a separate box is allocated for the title and supporting information, while there are multiple empty spaces on the sides of the map. The right quarter of the map’s width is there just to fit a couple of labels that could be placed differently. In general, the space is used wastefully.
Even if you don’t adjust the shape of the lines, but rather just shrink the margins and fill the corners, the design gets better.
Another reader has once sent a map of Vidnoye’s trolleybuses. Same mistake here: there’s a lot of empty space around the lines, but a huge area at the bottom is allocated for supporting information.
Let’s frame the map more aggressively, put the title in the vacant upper right corner, and type the supporting information more humbly in the lower right corner. The list of routes can be simply removed here.
Before
After
Before
After
A reader has once sent a map of Dobryanka’s buses.
A typical mistake is made: a separate box is allocated for the title and supporting information, while there are multiple empty spaces on the sides of the map. The right quarter of the map’s width is there just to fit a couple of labels that could be placed differently. In general, the space is used wastefully.
Before and after
Even if you don’t adjust the shape of the lines, but rather just shrink the margins and fill the corners, the design gets better.
Another reader has once sent a map of Vidnoye’s trolleybuses. Same mistake here: there’s a lot of empty space around the lines, but a huge area at the bottom is allocated for supporting information.
Before
Let’s frame the map more aggressively, put the title in the vacant upper right corner, and type the supporting information more humbly in the lower right corner. The list of routes can be simply removed here.
After
4
The details
Lines
Bundles
Bends
Stops
Terminals
Transfers
Directions
Fare zones
Labels
Symbols
The city
Excellence
4
The details
Lines
Bundles
Bends
Stops
Terminals
Transfers
Directions
Fare zones
Labels
Symbols
The city
Excellence
Lines
Routes on a map are represented with lines, and are often called “lines” as well.
In the second part of the book we discussed the main visual characteristic of a line: its color. We’ll touch upon color once again when we talk about line bundles. But in this chapter, let’s talk about thickness and graphic style.
Color coding
Color in bundles
Lines
Routes on a map are represented with lines, and are often called “lines” as well.
In the second part of the book we discussed the main visual characteristic of a line: its color. We’ll touch upon color once again when we talk about line bundles. But in this chapter, let’s talk about thickness and graphic style.
Color coding
Color in bundles
The pattern kind should be consistent with its significance. The 1968 London map shows the sections under construction in thin dashed outlines. Even without a legend, it is clear that these sections are “not for real” and less important than the others.
The 1985 map highlights sections where trains only run during rush hours. This detail is important, but the pattern is annoying to the eye and also looks like a dashed line, as if the sections are under construction. It would be better to use a calmer designation.
Sections under construction
Rush hours only
How it could be done: calmer and more like an operating line
Sections under construction
Rush hours only
How it could be done: calmer and more like an operating line
The pattern kind should be consistent with its significance. The 1968 London map shows the sections under construction in thin dashed outlines. Even without a legend, it is clear that these sections are “not for real” and less important than the others.
The 1985 map highlights sections where trains only run during rush hours. This detail is important, but the pattern is annoying to the eye and also looks like a dashed line, as if the sections are under construction. It would be better to use a calmer designation.
Sections under construction
Rush hours only
How it could be done: calmer and more like an operating line
Not only dashed lines, but also transparent ones read as “not for real”. This is how Art. Lebedev Studio designates lines under construction on its St. Petersburg Metro map.
Sections under construction
Operating lines
Sections under construction
Operating lines
Not only dashed lines, but also transparent ones read as “not for real”. This is how Art. Lebedev Studio designates lines under construction on its St. Petersburg Metro map.
Sections under construction
Operating lines
Bundles
Arduino board connection cable. Voltiq
Several routes may overlap, i. e. have sections where they run together. When each route is denoted by its own line, bundles of parallel lines appear on the diagram. And if there are too many of them, they start to look like ribbon cables.
Correspondence between lines and routes
Bundles
Several routes may overlap, i. e. have sections where they run together. When each route is denoted by its own line, bundles of parallel lines appear on the diagram. And if there are too many of them, they start to look like ribbon cables.
Arduino board connection cable. Voltiq
Correspondence between lines and routes
Here is one more trick that sometimes helps to put a bundle in order.
Sometimes two routes approach an intersection from opposite sides and leave the bundle at this intersection.
Lines pairs like these do not have to go along the edge: one can replace another right in the middle of the bundle, and there will be no gap. This gives you the freedom to choose the position of these lines in the bundle.
See also: making beautiful bundles in the app Transit
Here is one more trick that sometimes helps to put a bundle in order.
Sometimes two routes approach an intersection from opposite sides and leave the bundle at this intersection.
Lines pairs like these do not have to go along the edge: one can replace another right in the middle of the bundle, and there will be no gap. This gives you the freedom to choose the position of these lines in the bundle.
See also: making beautiful bundles in the app Transit
Suppose we have several lines of different thicknesses and styles, and they depict routes that run along the same street. It will be difficult to make a bundle out of such lines.
If you stitch the lines together, it becomes unclear what to treat as a separate route.
However, even if you add gaps, the design looks ambiguous: a couple of thin
What may help is grouping similar lines into separate bundles.
It may also be a good idea to get rid of the fully transparent parts of the lines, replacing them with lighter shades of their colors.
On line styles:
Lines
Suppose we have several lines of different thicknesses and styles, and they depict routes that run along the same street. It will be difficult to make a bundle out of such lines.
If you stitch the lines together, it becomes unclear what to treat as a separate route.
However, even if you add gaps, the design looks ambiguous: a couple of thin
What may help is grouping similar lines into separate bundles.
It may also be a good idea to get rid of the fully transparent parts of the lines, replacing them with lighter shades of their colors.
On line styles:
Lines
Bends
After Henry Beck had stopped working on the London Tube map, Harold Hutchinson carried the work on. Hutchinson abandoned smooth line bends, preferring to just “crunch” the lines at the turns.
1960. London Tube maps archive
This is a very bad map. The fractures is not the only problem with it, but is one of the most prominent.
About Henry Beck:
The first transit maps
Bends
After Henry Beck had stopped working on the London Tube map, Harold Hutchinson carried the work on. Hutchinson abandoned smooth line bends, preferring to just “crunch” the lines at the turns.
1960. London Tube maps archive
This is a very bad map. The fractures is not the only problem with it, but is one of the most prominent.
About Henry Beck:
The first transit maps
Designed by Henry Beck, 1933
Turns must be smooth.
Turns must be smooth.
Designed by Henry Beck, 1933
Turns must be clearly visible, not obscured by the designations of interchange stations.
This is counter‑intuitive: interchange stations seem to be convenient pivots, and it’s natural to want to connect them with straight line segments. But it’s important to perceive the whole route as one line, not just individual sections between stations.
If you fracture a line under an interchange station, you run into a problem. The color is used to show the relation between the segments; but the continuity suggest a different relation. It’s easy to get “off track”.
For the color‑blind, such map gets completely illegible: it’s impossible to guess which segment continues which line.
When the turns are visible and lines always pass straight through stations, the eye follows them easily.
This way, the lines stay legible even without color.
Turns must be clearly visible, not obscured by the designations of interchange stations.
This is counter‑intuitive: interchange stations seem to be convenient pivots, and it’s natural to want to connect them with straight line segments. But it’s important to perceive the whole route as one line, not just individual sections between stations.
If you fracture a line under an interchange station, you run into a problem. The color is used to show the relation between the segments; but the continuity suggest a different relation. It’s easy to get “off track”.
For the color‑blind, such map gets completely illegible: it’s impossible to guess which segment continues which line.
When the turns are visible and lines always pass straight through stations, the eye follows them easily.
This way, the lines stay legible even without color.
On angle grids:
Geometry
When designing a geometrical map, a question arises: may there be a double or triple turn? For example, when a 45° grid is used, can you bend a line at a 90° or a 135° angle?
A 90° turn is common. But if there is only one such turn on a map, it may attract too much attention and look as an incoherence of the design. If there are several of them, they look fine.
A 135° turn is questionable. One may argue that the lines just aren’t plotted well if some of them need to almost turn around and run in the opposite direction.
For graphical unity, a designer may construct a sharp turn by putting two or three normal ones adjacently. But this may make things look worse as well by rendering turns unreasonably clumsy.
Sometimes you can hide the problem by moving a station to the middle segment of the turn, as shown on the next page.
45°
90°. Fine, if there is more than one turn like this
135°. Questionable
45°
90°. Fine, if there is more than one turn like this
135°. Questionable
When designing a geometrical map, a question arises: may there be a double or triple turn? For example, when a 45° grid is used, can you bend a line at a 90° or a 135° angle?
A 90° turn is common. But if there is only one such turn on a map, it may attract too much attention and look as an incoherence of the design. If there are several of them, they look fine.
A 135° turn is questionable. One may argue that the lines just aren’t plotted well if some of them need to almost turn around and run in the opposite direction.
For graphical unity, a designer may construct a sharp turn by putting two or three normal ones adjacently. But this may make things look worse as well by rendering turns unreasonably clumsy.
Sometimes you can hide the problem by moving a station to the middle segment of the turn, as shown on the next page.
On angle grids:
Geometry
On my Moscow Metro map, the 90° angles are allowed, but I prefer
On my Moscow Metro map, the 90° angles are allowed, but I prefer
2004 and 2018
Transport for London
On the 2004 London Tube map, the fragment of the Hammersmith & City line after Liverpool Street turns at 90°, but makes the next 135° turn to Aldgate East in three 45° steps.
On the 2018 map, the same fragment looks cleaner, with just one 45° and one 90° turn. This became possible after significant changes in the layout of the surrounding lines .
On the 2004 London Tube map, the fragment of the Hammersmith & City line after Liverpool Street turns at 90°, but makes the next 135° turn to Aldgate East in three 45° steps.
On the 2018 map, the same fragment looks cleaner, with just one 45° and one 90° turn. This became possible after significant changes in the layout of the surrounding lines .
2004 and 2018
Transport for London
Sharper curve
Two distinct turns
When a turn is split into segments, those segments must be apparent, i. e. be of sufficient length relative to the bend’s length. In the first two examples, the bends are quite compact, so the double turn looks fine.
Smoother curve
Go figure
If you make the bends smoother and keep segment lengths the same, a double turn will look mangled. You no longer see an obvious middle fragment, instead, you see a line drawn by a shaky hand.
You can make the middle segment longer, but then the turn will take even more space.
Sharper curve
Two distinct turns
When a turn is split into segments, those segments must be apparent, i. e. be of sufficient length relative to the bend’s length. In the first two examples, the bends are quite compact, so the double turn looks fine.
Smoother curve
Go figure
If you make the bends smoother and keep segment lengths the same, a double turn will look mangled. You no longer see an obvious middle fragment, instead, you see a line drawn by a shaky hand.
You can make the middle segment longer, but then the turn will take even more space.
2015. Art. Lebedev Studio
2017. Art. Lebedev Studio
In the later version, the flaw was fixed. Also, note a nice juxtaposition of two 90° turns.
2015. Art. Lebedev Studio
2017. Art. Lebedev Studio
In the later version, the flaw was fixed. Also, note a nice juxtaposition of two 90° turns.
Now let’s talk about how to draw the actual bends.
Imagine you are drawing a line with your hand using a brush of a certain width. In this case, to make an abrupt turn you will need to interrupt your motion. In the same way, the eye stumbles upon such turn.
It’s better to at least make the line maintain its width along the bend. Still, the turn is too abrupt.
A simple way to make a bend smooth on a computer is radial rounding. Instead of a corner, an arc of a circle is drawn. The dot • represents the circle’s center.
The larger the radius of a circle whose arc is used, the smoother the line and the easier it is for the eye to follow.
But an overly large rounding takes up too much space on a map, making it hulky. For a great ship, it is difficult to manoeuvre.
Now let’s talk about how to draw the actual bends.
Imagine you are drawing a line with your hand using a brush of a certain width. In this case, to make an abrupt turn you will need to interrupt your motion. In the same way, the eye stumbles upon such turn.
It’s better to at least make the line maintain its width along the bend. Still, the turn is too abrupt.
A simple way to make a bend smooth on a computer is radial rounding. Instead of a corner, an arc of a circle is drawn. The dot • represents the circle’s center.
The larger the radius of a circle whose arc is used, the smoother the line and the easier it is for the eye to follow.
But an overly large rounding takes up too much space on a map, making it hulky. For a great ship, it is difficult to manoeuvre.
When radial rounding is used, it is a good idea to choose a fixed radius for the whole map for graphical consistency.
Line bundles will require an exception: if you use the same radius for all lines, holes will occur between them.
To remove the holes, you’ll need to “harmonize” the roundings by fitting:
to the outer one, by reducing the inner ones;
to the middle one, by reducing the inner ones and enlarging the outer ones;
to the inner one, by enlarging the outer ones;
The more lines there are in a bundle, the more options you have.
If you treat the neighboring bends differently, it will catch the eye.
Harmonize the bends consistently.
When radial rounding is used, it is a good idea to choose a fixed radius for the whole map for graphical consistency.
Line bundles will require an exception: if you use the same radius for all lines, holes will occur between them.
To remove the holes, you’ll need to “harmonize” the roundings by fitting:
to the outer one, by reducing the inner ones;
to the middle one, by reducing the inner ones and enlarging the outer ones;
to the inner one, by enlarging the outer ones;
The more lines there are in a bundle, the more options you have.
If you treat the neighboring bends differently, it will catch the eye.
Harmonize the bends consistently.
Line diagram standard. Radii and angles
Transport for London
The Transport for London standards call for using 45° and 90° turns with radial rounding with a radius of a triple line width.
In bundles, the curves should be fitted to the inner one, by making the outer ones larger.
Line diagram standard. Radii and angles
Transport for London
The Transport for London standards call for using 45° and 90° turns with radial rounding with a radius of a triple line width.
In bundles, the curves should be fitted to the inner one, by making the outer ones larger.
There is another reason to make an exception to the fixed‑radius rule.
When the radius is fixed, the length of an arc is proportional to the angle of a turn. A 45° turn is short, a 90° turn is longer, a 135° turn is too long.
It’s better to select an appropriate corner radius for each angle. In this example, the radius for the 45° turn is 1,5 times as big as for the 90° turn. For the 135° turn, it’s 1,5 times smaller. That’s nicer.
Ai
Illustrator’s ‘Round corners’ effect has a problem. Only for the 90° turns it uses the radii that you specify. Here, all lines have the same round corners setting. However, only the yellow one is actually built from an arc of that radius. As you see, the 45° turn has a much larger radius; the 135° turn, a much smaller one.
True radial rounding is achieved with the ‘Live corners’ tool, which appeared in the version 17.1
There is another reason to make an exception to the fixed‑radius rule.
When the radius is fixed, the length of an arc is proportional to the angle of a turn. A 45° turn is short, a 90° turn is longer, a 135° turn is too long.
It’s better to select an appropriate corner radius for each angle. In this example, the radius for the 45° turn is 1,5 times as big as for the 90° turn. For the 135° turn, it’s 1,5 times smaller. That’s nicer.
Ai
Illustrator’s ‘Round corners’ effect has a problem. Only for the 90° turns it uses the radii that you specify. Here, all lines have the same round corners setting. However, only the yellow one is actually built from an arc of that radius. As you see, the 45° turn has a much larger radius; the 135° turn, a much smaller one.
True radial rounding is achieved with the ‘Live corners’ tool, which appeared in the version 17.1
With radial rounding, a line is constructed by affixing three fragments to each other: a section of a straight line, an arc, and a section of straight line again. This is unnatural: real objects don’t bend like this.
When you bend a steel cane or a shower hose, the curvature smoothly rises in the direction of the center of the bending. It is impossible to tell where exactly the “turn” ends.
With radial rounding, a line is constructed by affixing three fragments to each other: a section of a straight line, an arc, and a section of straight line again. This is unnatural: real objects don’t bend like this.
When you bend a steel cane or a shower hose, the curvature smoothly rises in the direction of the center of the bending. It is impossible to tell where exactly the “turn” ends.
In the beginning of the chapter I said that fractured lines look bad. Lines with radially‑rounded corners are also fractured in a way: once you see the joints between the arc and the straight section, you won’t be able to “unsee” them.
To smoothen the line in a natual way, you need to pull its Bezier control points towards the turn, and move the curve points in an opposite direction. Don’t overdo this: if a line starts to look like a macaroni tube boiled too soft, make one step back.
In the beginning of the chapter I said that fractured lines look bad. Lines with radially‑rounded corners are also fractured in a way: once you see the joints between the arc and the straight section, you won’t be able to “unsee” them.
To smoothen the line in a natual way, you need to pull its Bezier control points towards the turn, and move the curve points in an opposite direction. Don’t overdo this: if a line starts to look like a macaroni tube boiled too soft, make one step back.
When drawing a 90° turn with radial rounding, the control points stick out about 56% of the radius.
A nice‑looking natural curve is usually achieved by pulling them to about 75%.
When drawing a 90° turn with radial rounding, the control points stick out about 56% of the radius.
A nice‑looking natural curve is usually achieved by pulling them to about 75%.
When we were looking at radial rounding, we discussed that it was better to select different radii for the turns of different angles.
The natural, hand‑tuned bends will also need to be separately adjusted for each type of turn.
Same with radial rounding
When we were looking at radial rounding, we discussed that it was better to select different radii for the turns of different angles.
The natural, hand‑tuned bends will also need to be separately adjusted for each type of turn.
Same with radial rounding
Radial
Depending on the angle grid used, you will need to draw by hand a number of different turn segments. The larger the angle, the more pronounced is the difference between radial rounding and natural curves.
30° 60° 120° 150°
30°
60°
120°
150°
Natural
Depending on the angle grid used, you will need to draw by hand a number of different turn segments. The larger the angle, the more pronounced is the difference between radial rounding and natural curves.
30° 60° 120° 150°
Radial
Natural
When using natural smoothing, the problem of bundles manifests itself in a bigger way.
As usual, if you nest the bends, holes appear. But unlike with radial rounding, here, the holes can’t be eliminated by just adjusting the radius.
Here is an unsuccessful attempt to fit all lines to the yellow one. In some places, gaps are still there; in others, the lines overlap.
If the curve points are positioned perpendicularly, you can make the overlap much less noticeable.
Next, you can cheat by putting the lines under each other—nobody will notice the trick.
But if you have spacing between the lines, you won’t be able to hide the imperfection.
You can tell that lines don’t ideally fit each other by looking at the shape of the white spacing. You will need to adjust the bends even more carefully.
But let’s get back to the variant without spacing. We have another problem with it: the green line has fractured.
Let’s try to fix it and fit other lines to it. It’s almost good now, but look at the blue line: its Bezier control points are not pulled towards the turn deep enough, and so its bend looks too close to radial. If you had more than four lines, the outer ones would be even worse in this way.
To perfect the bend, you’ll need to pull the curve points of the outer lines farther from the turn to pull their Bezier control points deeper into the angle. Now the bend looks good, and this variant will work with a larger number of lines.
When using natural smoothing, the problem of bundles manifests itself in a bigger way.
As usual, if you nest the bends, holes appear. But unlike with radial rounding, here, the holes can’t be eliminated by just adjusting the radius.
Here is an unsuccessful attempt to fit all lines to the yellow one. In some places, gaps are still there; in others, the lines overlap.
If the curve points are positioned perpendicularly, you can make the overlap much less noticeable.
Next, you can cheat by putting the lines under each other—nobody will notice the trick.
But if you have spacing between the lines, you won’t be able to hide the imperfection.
You can tell that lines don’t ideally fit each other by looking at the shape of the white spacing. You will need to adjust the bends even more carefully.
But let’s get back to the variant without spacing. We have another problem with it: the green line has fractured.
Let’s try to fix it and fit other lines to it. It’s almost good now, but look at the blue line: its Bezier control points are not pulled towards the turn deep enough, and so its bend looks too close to radial. If you had more than four lines, the outer ones would be even worse in this way.
To perfect the bend, you’ll need to pull the curve points of the outer lines farther from the turn to pull their Bezier control points deeper into the angle. Now the bend looks good, and this variant will work with a larger number of lines.
We’ve discussed the situation where a whole bundle makes turn.
But what if one of the lines goes straight? In this case, the roundings disharmonize unneatly. If we leave the blue line as if it just was the fourth in a bundle, the turn will look too large.
We may draw the bend as if it was the third in the bundle, and it will look neater.
Another option is to smoothen it the same way as the red one. Not too logical, but looks even better.
Or, we may stop thinking of it as of a part of the bundle and smoothen it independently, as a single line.
But the ideal solution is to work‑around the problem by re‑arranging the lines.
We’ve discussed the situation where a whole bundle makes turn.
But what if one of the lines goes straight? In this case, the roundings disharmonize unneatly. If we leave the blue line as if it just was the fourth in a bundle, the turn will look too large.
We may draw the bend as if it was the third in the bundle, and it will look neater.
Another option is to smoothen it the same way as the red one. Not too logical, but looks even better.
Or, we may stop thinking of it as of a part of the bundle and smoothen it independently, as a single line.
But the ideal solution is to work‑around the problem by re‑arranging the lines.
On the Australian trains map, the line
isn’t drawn well: on the left, the spacing between it and the blue line is of uneven width. It’s not obvious how to sort the lines to avoid the problem. But if you just make the green line’s rounding smaller and no longer consider it a part of the bundle, it will look better.
Even more noticeable is the problem on the bus map for Riga. The bends look half‑baked: the designer tried to harmonize them, but didn’t succeed.
Riga, Latvia
On the Australian trains map, the line
isn’t drawn well: on the left, the spacing between it and the blue line is of uneven width. It’s not obvious how to sort the lines to avoid the problem. But if you just make the green line’s rounding smaller and no longer consider it a part of the bundle, it will look better.
Even more noticeable is the problem on the bus map for Riga. The bends look half‑baked: the designer tried to harmonize them, but didn’t succeed.
Riga, Latvia
The bundles are bent neatly on this Chelyabinsk trams map.
The bundles are bent neatly on this Chelyabinsk trams map.
The perception of the whole map depends on the size of its bends, so it makes sense to adjust the smoothing when looking from a distance.
A map with more compact, determined bends usually looks more rigid, assuring, and mechanical.
Increasing the size of the bends makes the map friendlier.
On the other hand, the geometricity gradually gets lost.
The perception of the whole map depends on the size of its bends, so it makes sense to adjust the smoothing when looking from a distance.
A map with more compact, determined bends usually looks more rigid, assuring, and mechanical.
Increasing the size of the bends makes the map friendlier.
On the other hand, the geometricity gradually gets lost.
When a map is close to its final form, іt’s time to fine‑tune the size and shape of the bends. But when all of them are hand‑drawn, changing each one just to see if it’s better to the eye is too much work. Also, there is no way to make sure that all the bends are drawn without a mistake.
That’s why it’s important to be able to adjust all the bends simulataneously.
Ai
Tip: make a symbol out of a bend. Adjust the symbol to see how the change impacts the whole map. Here, I’ve drawn a twirl inside the bends’s symbol, and the whole map instantly got twirls. Fun!
About symbols in Illustrator help
When a map is close to its final form, іt’s time to fine‑tune the size and shape of the bends. But when all of them are hand‑drawn, changing each one just to see if it’s better to the eye is too much work. Also, there is no way to make sure that all the bends are drawn without a mistake.
That’s why it’s important to be able to adjust all the bends simulataneously.
Ai
Tip: make a symbol out of a bend. Adjust the symbol to see how the change impacts the whole map. Here, I’ve drawn a twirl inside the bends’s symbol, and the whole map instantly got twirls. Fun!
About symbols in Illustrator help
When there is no angle grid and a map is drawn by a free hand, the standard for the bends quality become even higher. The beauty that arises from consistency and uniformity is achievable by mere carefulness.
But there is a different kind of beauty: the one that arises from immaculate feel and ability to maintain tension in lines. There is no recipe for this. Graphic designers, and even more so, type designers, refine this feel in decades.
Trams of Odessa, Ukraine, 2016
Art. Lebedev Studio
Trams of Odessa, Ukraine, 2016
Art. Lebedev Studio
When there is no angle grid and a map is drawn by a free hand, the standard for the bends quality become even higher. The beauty that arises from consistency and uniformity is achievable by mere carefulness.
But there is a different kind of beauty: the one that arises from immaculate feel and ability to maintain tension in lines. There is no recipe for this. Graphic designers, and even more so, type designers, refine this feel in decades.
Stops
The simplest designation of a stop is a dot, i.e. a small circle. In mathematics, it is also used to denote any meaningful point on a graph.
But this designation only works if the routes are shown as thin lines.
Train No. 13, my design
Train No. 13,
my design
Stops
The simplest designation of a stop is a dot, i.e. a small circle. In mathematics, it is also used to denote any meaningful point on a graph.
But this designation only works if the routes are shown as thin lines.
Train No. 13, my design
Île‑de‑France, 2020. Transilien
Berlin, 1926. Old Berlin transit maps
Terminals
Hollow circles size variations
Île‑de‑France, 2020. Transilien
Berlin, 1926. Old Berlin transit maps
Hollow circles size variations
Terminals
To complete the picture, let’s look at size variations of the painted black circles relative to line thickness.
Size variations
For good contrast, you can paint the circles black or white, depending on the color of a particular line. But this is dangerous—the reader may think that the color difference means something:
What is special about the stop on the yellow line here?
There is usually no reason to paint the circles with any color other than black or white.
Size variations
To complete the picture, let’s look at size variations of the painted black circles relative to line thickness.
For good contrast, you can paint the circles black or white, depending on the color of a particular line. But this is dangerous—the reader may think that the color difference means something:
What is special about the stop on the yellow line here?
There is usually no reason to paint the circles with any color other than black or white.
Terminals
A terminal is a stop, so you can use the designations from the previous chapter for it.
However, it makes sense to emphasize the ends of a route: they are often used as the route’s identifiers along with a number or color. When a vehicle has a digital display board, the destination stop is usually shown there; otherwise, both ends are indicated somehow. At stops, routes are also listed with their numbers and destinations.
Stockholm. Bus towards Märsta station
Chelyabinsk. Tram on the route 19: Chicherina—Koksohim
Tel Aviv. The next buses go towards the stops: Reading,
Terminals
A terminal is a stop, so you can use the designations from the previous chapter for it.
However, it makes sense to emphasize the ends of a route: they are often used as the route’s identifiers along with a number or color. When a vehicle has a digital display board, the destination stop is usually shown there; otherwise, both ends are indicated somehow. At stops, routes are also listed with their numbers and destinations.
Stockholm. Bus towards Märsta station
Chelyabinsk. Tram on the route 19: Chicherina—Koksohim
Tel Aviv. The next buses go towards the stops: Reading,
Terminals are a good excuse for using extravagant designations. There usually aren’t too many of them, and most of them are on the periphery, so you can have fun without compromising the legibility of the key information.
Designer Roman Vatrikovsky has come up with very beautiful terminals for his map of Lubertsy buses.
Terminals in Chelyabinsk:
Map as a symbol
Terminals in Chelyabinsk:
Map as a symbol
Terminals are a good excuse for using extravagant designations. There usually aren’t too many of them, and most of them are on the periphery, so you can have fun without compromising the legibility of the key information.
Designer Roman Vatrikovsky has come up with very beautiful terminals for his map of Lubertsy buses.